relationships between people established in the process of their joint practical and spiritual activities; are divided into material and ideological. The production of material goods forms the basis of the existence and development of the human society. Therefore, of all O. o. the most important are production and economic. Production relations form the basis of all other O.O. - political, legal, moral, religious, etc. Understanding the interdependence of all educational organizations and their connections with production ones made it possible for the first time to explain on a scientific basis the patterns of historical development of the society.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

PUBLIC RELATIONS

relationships that include as their elements: 1) subjects with their statuses and roles, values ​​and norms, needs and interests, incentives and motives; 2) the content of the activities of subjects and their interactions, the nature of these interactions - the equivalence or nonequivalence of social exchanges, the degree of independence or controllability of actions; 3) assessment of relations, carried out by subjects by comparing the elements of their relations with the elements of relations of other subjects participating in similar relations; 4) structures and norms that ensure the stability of relationships and the institutionalization of their reproduction in everyday life.

The subjects of social relations are individuals, small and large groups, territorial communities, ethnic groups, organizations, social institutions, and large societies themselves as wholes. Accordingly, relationships are distinguished between interpersonal, intragroup and intergroup, local, ethnic, organizational, institutional, intra-country and international. Various subject-mixed relationships are also observed, when an individual interacts with an organization, the organization finds itself in conflict with an ethnic group, etc.

According to the subject content, social relations are differentiated according to the main spheres of society's life into: economic, social, political, moral, ideological, etc. Each of these types of social relations has its own grounds that distinguish it from others: economic relations are formed on the basis of production, exchange and distribution of goods and services; social - based on the statuses of various subjects in the social structure and in society as a whole; political - on the basis of public power, etc. The specific content of each type of social relations changes historically along with the change of the whole society. Having emerged, new elements of social relations are gradually established in the everyday life of people, acquiring the character of social institutions that steadily reproduce themselves and their relationships with the environment.

Social relations are very diverse in their nature and internal content. There are direct and indirect, direct and indirect, formalized and informal relationships. The most important thing for subjects of social relations is the parity or disparity of their relationships: equality and inequality, cooperation and competition, domination and subordination, antagonism and cooperation. No less significant is the tendency in which social relations become a force dominating over subjects and turn into alienation of their interactions.

In the philosophical aspect, the key question is about the nature of the relationships between different types of social relations: are their relationships plural, multifactorial in nature, or is it more reasonable to monistically divide all types of social relations into two groups - determinative (primary, material) and determinable (secondary, ideological) ).

The materialist understanding of history created by K. Marx and F. Engels comes from a monistic division, which makes it possible to explain the entire history of mankind, the fundamental structure, functioning and development of each society from a unified position. Marxism identifies economic and production relations as material, the nature of which is determined by the productive forces of society and does not depend on the will and consciousness of people. They serve as the basis on which political, legal, moral and other ideological relations corresponding to it (determined by it) are formed in the form of a superstructure (see Basis and superstructure). As the productive forces develop, they come into conflict with production relations, which leads to a revolutionary change in the base and superstructure, the entire system of social relations. One social formation is replaced by another. The cause-and-effect dependence of ideological relations on material relations is not unambiguous and includes the reverse impact of superstructural relations on basic ones; for example, a socialist revolution begins with the destruction of the previous political superstructure and the creation of a new one, which actively builds the basis of a socialist society and itself changes under its influence.

In social science of the 20th century. Other approaches are also common. Thus, M. Weber substantiated the significant role of the spirit of Protestantism (its values ​​and norms) in the formation of bourgeois economic relations in Western Europe and North America. This historical example is interpreted as one of the proofs of the determining influence of culture on the economy. P. A. Sorokin, based on a study of the cultural history of many countries of the world over 2 thousand years, proposed a sociocultural approach in which cultural and social relations (including economic) are correlated as equally influential, and not unilaterally determining the functioning and evolution of society.

The most general and influential concept of plural interconnections of social relations as an integral system is structural functionalism (T. Pearson, R. Merton). The starting point here is the structure of social action, which includes four functions (adaptation, goal achievement, integration, latency) and corresponding subsystems (behavioral, personal, social, cultural), each of which unites a set of factors and relationships. The relationship between these subsystems is dual in nature: flows of determining energy move from the behavioral subsystem through the personal and social to the cultural; but the hierarchy of information control has the opposite direction: information generalizations of the highest order contained in culture control the corresponding generalizations of the social, then personal and, finally, behavioral subsystems. The real interconnection of the four subsystems of relations that form an integral system turns out to be a complex result of two oppositely directed flows of influences.

The newest approaches to understanding the nature and interconnections of social relations focus on man as the subject of activity and relationships (Margaret Archer, W. Buckley, E. Giddens, M. Crozier, A. Touraine, P. Sztompka, A. Etzioni). In addition to the structural-functional model, the concepts of morphogenesis, interdependence of figures and systems, and social reality as a certain coefficient of activity are proposed. Once again the humanistic approach of the early Marx, his dialectical concept of activity, and the problem of overcoming human alienation come into view.

Lit.: Weber M. On some categories of understanding sociology. - Same. Selected works. M-, 1990; Marx K. Towards a critique of political economy. Preface. - Marx K., Echgelsf. Works, vol. 13; Pearson T. The concept of society. - “Tesis”, 1993, vol. l, no. 2; Sorokin P. Generic structure of sociocultural phenomena, - In the book: Man. Civilization. Society. M., 1992; Sztompka P. Sociology of social changes. M., 1996; Archer M. Culture and Agency Cambr., 1988; CivwrM., Freiberg E. Actors and Systems. Chi.-L., 1980; EtyoniA. The Active Society. N. Y, 1968; GiddensA. The Constitution of society Cambr., 1984; LuhmannN. Social Systeme. Fr./M., 1993; Merlon R. Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, 1968; Pamons T. The Social System. N.Y., 1964; TouraineA. The Self-production of Society. L„ 1977.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Social relations are relationships that arise between people in the process of their life. In essence, this is the entire aggregate activity of people, forms of interaction between them. In a more specific sense, we can say that social relations are the diverse connections that arise between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them in the process of their economic, social, political, cultural life and activity. Individual people enter into social relations precisely as members or representatives of certain social communities or groups.

The structure of social relations can be viewed from different points of view. In accordance with the Marxist concept, all social relations are divided into material and spiritual. Material relations are interpreted as basic, arising without the direct participation of consciousness. Their character is determined by the productive forces of society. Spiritual relationships are understood as derived from material relationships. They belong to the superstructural, arise and function, passing through the consciousness of people. Spiritual relations include political, legal, moral, etc. From the point of view of the main types of practice, the structure of social relations will be represented by two types of relations. Firstly, this is the relationship “people - nature” (production practice, man’s transformation of nature). Secondly, this is the “person-person” relationship (socio-historical practice). The structure of social relations can also be considered from the point of view of subjects of public life. In this case, the relationships that arise between classes, socio-ethnic communities, confessions, social and age groups, individuals, etc. can be highlighted.

3. Norms governing social relations

In every society there are norms that regulate social relations - social norms. Social norms are patterns, standards of activity, rules of behavior, the fulfillment of which is expected from a member of society or a social group and is supported by sanctions.

There are many types of social norms. The main ones are customs, traditions, legal and moral norms.

Customs are rules of social behavior that are passed down from generation to generation, reproduced in a particular society or social group, and become part of the habits, everyday life and consciousness of their members.

Traditions are elements of social and cultural heritage that are preserved in certain societies, social groups for a long time, the process of social inheritance, its methods.

Legal norms are generally binding rules of conduct established by the state and by law. They, as a rule, indicate the conditions for their implementation, the subjects of regulated relations, their mutual rights and obligations, as well as sanctions in case of their violation.

Moral norms are requirements for certain behavior based on socially accepted ideas about good and evil, proper and impermissible. They rely solely on public support.

Various authors propose to identify as independent other norms that regulate social relations: political, religious, aesthetic, etc. Social norms can develop spontaneously or be created consciously, consolidated and expressed orally or in writing. Despite the great differences among themselves, social norms have a number of common features: they are the rules of behavior of people in society, they are of a general nature, that is, they are addressed to everyone.

Social relations are those relationships between people that arise in the process of their social interaction. They develop in one form or another, under specific conditions. Examples of social relations are well known to each of us. After all, we are all members of society and come into contact with other individuals in one way or another. However, it is worth paying a little more attention to this topic and considering it in detail.

About the criteria

Before we talk about what types they are divided into.

The most common criterion is regulation. What in this case determines the legal situation. And in terms of regulation, relationships can be official or unofficial. The first include those that develop between individuals due to their official position. Let's say between a boss and subordinates. Or teacher and student. And unofficial relationships are those that are also commonly called personal. They have no legal basis and are not limited by formal rules. This could be a relationship between friends, for example. Or between a guy and a girl.

Classification

Relations can also be class and estate, economic, religious, political, moral, mass, legal, cognitive, conative and communicative. They can also be long-term, short-term, functional, permanent, cause-and-effect and subordinate.

Legal relations

This is the type of connection that is based on legal obligations and subjective rights that are provided by the state. She is strong-willed. In order for the relationship to begin to exist, one or another document must be signed. Through certain norms, agreed upon, as a rule, on paper, the will of the state is reflected in these relations. And, by the way, they are also protected by the authorities.

But the most important thing is that it is in legal relations that the strength of legal norms and their effectiveness are manifested. You can give an example. Let's say a young man named Anton, who graduated from a university, received a summons from the military registration and enlistment office. In this case, it is military service. The subjects are Anton himself and the state. What is that Anton has a legal obligation to report to the military registration and enlistment office, then serve in the army. And the state, in turn, has the right to call Anton to serve. These are the norms of social relations regulated by the legal field.

Economic sphere

This topic should also be addressed with attention. The system of social relations in the economic sphere represents certain connections into which people participating in the production process enter. However, there is a classification here too.

Widespread They appear due to the fact that production in an enterprise, as well as distribution and exchange, are not possible unless a certain system is in place. There must be a certain organization of the process that accompanies the joint activities of enterprise employees. This also includes the division of labor. Examples of social relations of this classification existed many centuries ago. The first case was the separation of agriculture from cattle breeding. What acted as prerequisites? Naturally, there is a desire to use available resources and labor more efficiently. Hence the emergence of such a concept as specialization, but this is another topic.

Family

When considering examples of social relations, one cannot ignore this aspect. The family is a small socio-psychological group, the connection in which is traditionally based on trust and love. It can consist of two people (husband and wife, for example) or twenty (grandparents, children, etc.).

And it is not without reason that many sociologists, when talking about areas of social relations, pay special attention to the family. Since it is with her that a person spends most of his time allotted for rest. Communication in the family performs several functions at once. It is with its help that the focused and coordinated efforts of both spouses are ensured to achieve a common goal that is important for their family. And only communication can satisfy the need for spiritual intimacy with a loved one.

In addition, the family is a socio-economic unit. Within its framework, the household is carried out and the general budget is maintained, the consumption of certain services and benefits is organized, as well as the satisfaction of various needs regarding housing, clothing, food, etc. And how well and efficiently the union, the marriage of two people, functions , depends on the interaction of the spouses. And the basis of all this is communication.

Moral

This topic should also be noted with attention when talking about the subject of social relations. Moral ties are not regulated by legal laws, like the notorious legal ones. They are fixed differently. Traditions, customs, rituals and other ethnocultural forms that reflect the moral norms of behavior of a particular community of people. Moral relations contain many conventions of a cultural and historical nature. They all stem from the lifestyle of a small group of people. And the peculiarity of these relationships is that the central value of everything is the person.

And the examples are simple. In terms of moral relations, people are defined by the principle of antonyms. That is, they can be good and bad, kind and evil, merciful and aggressive, etc.

Religion

In our society, this area also has a certain weight and significance. There is even legal regulation of social relations in the religious aspect. We are talking about the law concerning (Article 148 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation).

Religious relations are a reflection of the interaction of people who are bound by common ideas about man and his place in universal life processes, as well as about the soul, death, and the meaning of existence. This is important because all of the above is related to the need for self-knowledge, self-improvement and finding oneself in this world.

An example of a religious relationship is the relationship between a congregation and a pastor, who can be said to be God's representative, bringing the good news to people and helping them find the truth. In addition, it is the pastor who conducts such ceremonies as baptism, funeral (funeral service), marriage (wedding), breaking of bread.

Material relations

This is something that concerns us all directly. Material relations develop in the course of a person’s life, sometimes even outside his consciousness. We enter into this kind of communication every day. While working, a person produces content and receives money in return. When he buys food, he gives away his money. When receiving a gift, he thanks. There are actually many material needs. They concern not only food, water, clothing and housing, but also active and cultural recreation, which can be realized using material relations. How to understand this? It’s very simple: if a person likes to go to the gym, he buys a membership.

And the principle here is also simple. The more needs of this kind a person has, the more diverse the material relations in society. After all, these two concepts are inseparable from each other.

Public relations management includes:

1. Development of internal and external information policy;

2. Development of a set of measures that establish contacts between the authorities and the public;

3. Activities aimed at managing crisis situations;

4. Activities aimed at managing the organization’s sphere of influence;

5. Formation of image.

Social relations are diverse connections that arise between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them in the process of their economic, social, political, cultural life and activity. Individual people enter into social relations precisely as members (representatives) of certain social communities and groups. Social relations are in dialectical interaction with personal relationships of people, i.e. with their relationships as specific individuals connected by direct contacts in which the psychological, moral and cultural characteristics of people, their likes and dislikes and other personal factors are significant.

Social relations of various social groups, communities, organizations, and collectives are determined, firstly, by their place in a historically defined system of production relations and, secondly, by specific relationships with other social groups and, above all, by their connections with the main classes of a given society.

Social relations are relationships formed on the basis of stable vertical and horizontal connections and dependencies of people in the social structure of society and between them in the processes of joint actions and the fulfillment of status-role assignments.

Social relations can be divided into two large groups: material relations and spiritual relations. Material relations arise and develop directly in the course of human practical activity and are consolidated in the material forms of material culture (creation, distribution, consumption of material values). Spiritual relationships are associated with ideal values: moral, artistic, philosophical, religious.

Most often, public relations are divided into spheres of public life. In any society - regardless of language, dominant religion, history, economic orientation - there are four types of activity that must be reproduced in order to preserve and continue it. They form the basis for the formation of four main spheres of public life and, accordingly, four types of social relations. Thus, they highlight

· economic relations (relations in the process of material production);

· social relations (system-forming relations between subjects of social life);

· political relations (regarding the functioning of power in society);

· spiritual - intellectual relations (regarding moral, religious, aesthetic values).

Social relations are influenced by the regulatory activities of man and society as a whole. At the same time, the position and well-being of each person, as well as the direction and pace of social development, depend on the nature of the relationships established in a given society. Economic, social, political and spiritual relations of people in every historically defined society exist objectively, largely independent of the desires of an individual. But the system of social relations develops only on the basis of the creative efforts of many people, whose practical activities give rise to new social relations.

The following types of social relations are distinguished:

1) fair and unfair.

2) voluntary and forced.

3) cooperation and confrontation.

4) long-term and short-term.

5) By spheres of life:

Table 1. Types of social relations by spheres of life.

		participants	reasons for the occurrence
1) economic	economic	employees, owners, entrepreneurs, authorities	regarding production, distribution, exchange, consumption
2) political	political	authorities, parties, public organizations	regarding the state structure, form of government, political regime
3) legal	legal	authorities, organizations, legal entities and individuals	regarding rights, freedoms, duties and responsibilities
4) environmental	environmental	producers, consumers, public organizations	regarding the protection of facilities, quality of life
5) business	business life	management bodies, employees, partners	regarding the organization of management, administration, business operations
6) spiritual	spiritual	subjects of spiritual production	about ideas, faith, science, art, culture
7) social	social	bearers of social status	regarding socialization, polarization of society, social authorities

When entering into public relations, people and organizations, relying on the collective interests of citizens, form a collective point of view, a collective public opinion. Public opinion is a dynamic state of mass consciousness, reflecting the attitude of society towards various events, objects, personalities in a specific historical period.

The most important aspects of forming public opinion are:

1) opinion, to a greater extent than words, is determined by events.

2) the degree of influence of an event depends on its importance and specificity.

3) the essence of the event must be extremely clear.

4) public opinion can be formed in conditions of information deficiency.

5) a leader is always needed to form public opinion.

6) people are less resistant to making important management decisions if they feel that they are taking some part in this process.

7) it is easier for people to form an opinion regarding a goal than regarding methods for achieving this goal.

8) the principle of stages in the formation of public opinion should be used.

9) people are more favorable to ideas that are accompanied by a plan of concrete action.

10) the principle of reciprocity applies in the formation of public opinion.

11) a campaign that spends too much money on it can cause mistrust and suspicion.

12) repeating a message up to 3-4 times increases attention to it, but very frequent repetitions reduce attention to the event.

13) unusual messages are remembered better.

14) the opinions of citizens on a specific issue depend on how this issue was presented to them, and on the circumstances in which they were at that time.

15) citizens will support an idea that can affect their future.

16) citizens tend to approve of ideas that come from a familiar and reliable source.

Managing public opinion can influence public relations and guarantee the achievement of a specific goal, while it is very important to think about how and how best to influence the public in order to achieve exactly the result that is the goal of influencing public opinion.

Public opinion is one of the phenomena that is difficult to comprehensively analyze and strictly define. In Russian literature alone, one can find about two dozen definitions of the concept “public opinion.” If we try to summarize them, we can say the following: the public opinion of a social community is a specific way of manifestation of the social state of consciousness of this community, which indirectly and generally reflects the attitude of the majority of its members to facts, events, phenomena in objective or subjective reality that aroused their interest and discussion, and which is embodied in value judgments or practical actions of members of a given community.

The importance of the state forming a certain public opinion has the following explanation:

Firstly, as a unique phenomenon of spiritual life, public opinion is directly related to the material carrier, which determines the real strength of this opinion, its features and properties. At the same time, the wider strata of society act as bearers of public opinion, the greater social authority and effectiveness it has, the more it forces itself to be considered.

Secondly, in each specific case, public opinion is rooted in certain needs and interests of people, declaring by the very fact of its existence the importance of taking them into account and satisfying them.

Thirdly, public opinion as a socio-psychological phenomenon is an active stimulator of social actions and actions of the masses, capable of giving them wide scope and stability over various, often quite long periods of time.

Fourthly, the ever-expanding practice of actual, informal elections of governing bodies, economic managers of all ranks, willingly or unwillingly, forces even those who do not yet fully understand the importance of studying and taking public opinion into account in everyday practical work to keep their finger on the pulse of public opinion.

Public opinion is a specific manifestation of social consciousness, expressed in assessments (both oral and written) and characterizing the explicit (or hidden) attitude of large social groups (primarily the majority of the people) to current problems of reality that are of public interest.

The above definitions of the concept of public opinion together form a picture that most fully reflects the essence of this phenomenon. Summarizing them, we can conclude that public opinion is a specific way of manifesting the state of social consciousness, which indirectly or generally reflects the attitude of the majority of its members to facts, events, phenomena, and is also expressed in assessments of these facts, events and phenomena.

The functions of public opinion differ depending on the nature of the interaction between the opinions of certain social institutions and individuals, primarily on the nature of the influence of the former on the latter, on the content of the expressed opinion, on its form. Public opinion is characterized by the following functions: expressive (in a narrower sense, control), advisory, directive.

1. The expressive function is the broadest in its meaning. Public opinion always takes a certain position in relation to any facts and events in the life of society, the actions of various institutions, and state leaders. This feature gives this phenomenon the character of a force standing above the institutions of power, evaluating and controlling the activities of institutions and leaders of parties and the state.

Thus, the objective content of public opinion puts state institutions and their leaders in a controlled position. Possessing only one moral authority, public opinion is very effective in its results. This effect will certainly be greater if it is supported by various forms of control on the part of the general population.

2. Advisory function - public opinion gives advice on ways to resolve certain social, economic, political, ideological, and interstate problems. This opinion will be fair, if, of course, government institutions are interested in such advice. Listening to these advice, political leaders, groups, clans are forced to adjust decisions and management methods.

3. The directive function of public opinion is manifested in the fact that the public makes decisions on certain problems of social life that are imperative in nature, for example, the expression of the will of the people during elections and referendums. In these cases, the people not only give a mandate of trust to this or that leader, but also express their opinion. Imperative statements occupy a very significant place in politics.

Depending on the content of judgments formed by the public, opinions can be evaluative, analytical, constructive and regulatory.

An evaluative opinion expresses an attitude towards certain problems or facts. There are more emotions in it than analytical conclusions and conclusions.

Analytical and constructive public opinion are closely related: making any decision requires a deep and comprehensive analysis, which requires elements of theoretical thinking, and sometimes hard work of thought. But in their content, analytical and constructive opinions do not coincide.

The meaning of regulatory public opinion is that it develops and implements certain norms of social relations and operates with a whole set of norms, principles, traditions, customs, morals, etc. not written by law. Usually it implements the code of rules that is enshrined in the moral consciousness of people, groups, and collectives. Public opinion can also appear in the form of positive or negative judgments.

To denote a system of relations, various concepts are used: “social relations”, “public relations”, “human relations”, etc. In one case they are used as synonyms, in another they are sharply opposed to each other. In fact, despite the semantic similarity, these concepts differ from each other.

Social relations- These are relationships between social groups or their members.

Public relations– these are diverse connections. Emerging between the named communities, as well as within them in the process of economic, social, political, cultural life and activity.

Relationships are classified on the following basis:

From the point of view of ownership and disposal of property (class, estate);

By the amount of power (vertical and horizontal relationships);

By spheres of manifestation (legal, economic, political, moral, religious, aesthetic, intergroup, mass, interpersonal);

From the position of regulation (official, unofficial);

Based on the internal socio-psychological structure (communicative, cognitive, etc.).

In addition to the concept of “social relations,” the concept of “human relations” is also widely used in science. As a rule, it is used to designate all kinds of subjective manifestations of a person in the process of his interaction with various objects of the external world, not excluding his attitude towards himself.

Human relations expressed in the form of production, economic, legal, moral, political, religious, ethnic, aesthetic, etc.

Relations of production concentrated in a variety of professional and labor roles-functions of a person (for example, engineer or worker, manager or performer, etc.).

Economic relations are implemented in the sphere of production, ownership and consumption, which is a market for material and spiritual products. Here a person plays two interrelated roles - seller and buyer. Economic relations are woven into production relations through the labor market (labor) and the creation of consumer goods. In this context, a person is characterized by the roles of owner and owner of the means of production and production products, as well as the role of the labor force that is hired.

Legal relations in society are enshrined in legislation. They establish the measure of individual freedom as a subject of production, economic, political and other social relations.

Moral relations are enshrined in relevant rituals, traditions, customs and other forms of ethnocultural organization of people’s lives. These forms contain the moral norm of behavior at the level of existing interpersonal relationships, which stems from the moral self-awareness of a particular community of people. In the manifestations of moral relations there are many cultural and historical conventions coming from the way of life of society. At the center of this relationship is a person who is seen as his own value. According to the manifestation of moral relations, a person is defined as “good - bad”, “good - evil”, “fair - unjust”, etc.

Religious relations reflect the interaction of people, which develops under the influence of ideas about the place of man in the universal processes of life and death, about the ideal properties of the psyche, the spiritual and moral foundations of existence. These relationships are based on feelings, intuition and faith.

Political relations center around the problem of power. Power automatically leads to the dominance of those who have it and the subordination of those who do not have it. The power intended to organize social relations is realized in the form of leadership functions in communities of people. Its absolutization, as well as its complete absence, is harmful to the livelihoods of communities.

Aesthetic relations arise on the basis of the emotional and psychological attractiveness of people to each other and the aesthetic reflection of material objects of the outside world. These relationships are characterized by great subjective variability. What may be attractive to one person may not be attractive to another. Standards of aesthetic attractiveness have a psychobiological basis, which is associated with the subjective side of human consciousness. They acquire constancy in ethno-psychological forms of behavior, undergoing cultural processing through various types of art and becoming entrenched in socio-historical stereotypes of human relations.

Concept "human relations" is broader than all the others, denoting certain relationships. Each individual usually has different relationships with some community and even an individual person who is part of his immediate or more distant environment. In the relationship of one person with another, a characteristic feature is revealed - the presence of a positive or negative emotional reaction to the other person. This reaction can be neutral, indifferent or contradictory. Naturally, some relationships, due to their nature, can be constructive and “work” for the mental, moral, aesthetic, labor and physical development of the individual, while the action of other relationships can have a destructive result for him. In this sense, relationships with subjectively significant people are especially important for an individual.

Among interpersonal relationships, there are relationships of acquaintance, friendship, comradeship, friendship and relationships that turn into intimate-personal ones: love, marital, family. The main criterion for interpersonal relationships is the depth of the individual’s involvement in them. The greatest inclusion of the individual occurs in friendly and marital relationships.

Concept "personal attitude" a person’s purely individual focus on someone or something is determined. A personal relationship with another person includes a specific response to the strengths and weaknesses of a partner, his significance for the subject of the relationship. Personal attitude stems from a person's subjective attitudes and may remain hidden.

Mental relationships reveal the attractiveness of an object that has a favorable or unfavorable effect on a person’s sense organs. These relationships are distinguished by the involuntary response of the subject to the properties of the reflected object. They accompany any act of human mental activity at a specific sensory level of reflection and manifest themselves in sensory tone and mood, as well as in affects and other mental states. In addition, these relationships regulate interaction with the subject, revealing themselves in the pursuit of him or in avoiding him. By realizing his mental attitude to an object, a person transforms an elementary affective response into feelings. Thus, mental relationships are transformed into psychological ones.

Psychological relationships Personalities in a developed form represent an integral system of its individual, selective, conscious connections with various aspects of objective reality. Consciousness and arbitrariness of psychological relationships are based on the cognitive functions of human mental activity. Thanks to cognitive processes, an analysis of the significance of a pleasant or unpleasant object occurs, which predetermines our psychological attitude when choosing or rejecting this object.

The new quality of socio-psychological relationships is due to the fact that they are always a product of interaction, interconnection, mutual aspiration, mutual influence, mutual knowledge, mutual expression, relationships. All these “mutually” are integrated into the group effects of cooperation - rivalry, friendship - enmity, love - hate, good - evil, leadership - conformism, etc.

Role relationships reflect the functional and organizational dependence of people in joint activities. The “leader-follower” relationship in production communities is represented by the roles of leader, colleague, and executor. They are fixed in the official administrative and management structure. At the same time, each ordinary employee can also act in relation to another as a leader or follower. These roles do not always coincide with official positions and are manifested in unofficial leadership.

Communication relationships characterize the activity of community members in their contacts, relationships and communication. They arise through information exchange between participants in the interaction and largely depend on the psychological qualities of the partners, which they are able to demonstrate in the range of “sociability - isolation.” The development of communicative relationships is favored by the following qualities: openness, sincerity, simplicity, personal charm, spontaneity, emotionality, etc. The communicative potential of an individual is reduced due to timidity, shyness, secrecy, inability to listen to others, etc.

Cognitive relationships represent the result of reflecting the adequacy of mutual cognition of people. They characterize partners in the range of “understanding - misunderstanding” through the manifestation of sympathy, empathy, empathy and other socio-psychological phenomena that determine the penetration of interaction participants into each other’s psychological essence.

Emotional Relationships reflect the mutual attractiveness of people and manifest themselves within the framework of “love - hate”. The stimulus for these feelings is the physical, psychological, and social attractiveness of partners. Different types of attraction can mutually enhance or weaken each other. This depends on the subjective attitudes of the partners towards their joint activities, as well as on ethnopsychological stereotypes.

Volitional relationships reflect the possibilities for self-expression of partners in joint life activities. They characterize the measure of psychological activity or the nature of behavior of people in communities. Volitional relationships change in the range of “independence - submission” and manifest themselves as authority, independence, determination, persistence, compliance, tolerance, etc.

Moral Relationships characterize people’s behavior according to the criteria of “good - evil” and are manifested in caring, responsiveness or indifference, self-interest, aggression, selfishness, etc. These relationships reflect psychological attitudes regarding the ethical side of people's behavior in communities. The understanding of good and evil in primary groups does not always correspond to public morality due to the complexity and inconsistency of everyday consciousness, which does not always accept and use universal human values.

Human relationships find their real reflection and expression in communication.

Interpersonal relationships can be considered not only as a dyadic relationship, but also as a relationship between people who are part of a common group - a family, a school class, a sports team, a team of workers, etc. In these cases, they manifest themselves in the nature and methods of mutual influence that people have on each other during joint activities and communication.

The position of a person in a group, which determines his rights, responsibilities and privileges, is called status relations. They arise in connection with interpersonal relationships. In different groups, the same person can have different status. For example, a teenager, who is disliked by classmates and teachers for his aggressiveness and bad manners, outside of school may turn out to be the “ringleader” of a courtyard company, the leader of an informal group. A person's status depends on the characteristics of the group to which he belongs. Important characteristics of status are the prestige and authority of an individual as a kind of measure of recognition of her merits by those around her.

Relations between specific small groups can be characterized as relations intragroup favoritism, intergroup discrimination, intergroup cooperation.

The essence in-group favoritism is that one’s own group is assessed by its members as more attractive (better) than other groups.

Intergroup discrimination, which may be a consequence of in-group favoritism, manifests itself in a hostile attitude towards an out-group. In-group favoritism is necessary in the early stages of the development of a small group; it has a beneficial effect on its cohesion and reflects the degree of significance and attractiveness of the group for the individual. In this regard, intergroup discrimination seems natural for groups of criminals united on the basis of community, for example, in correctional labor colonies.

Thus, intergroup relations develop on the basis described by B.F. Porshnev: members of a certain community (group) develop a certain idea and sense of unity, expressed by the word “We”. But everyone who is not part of this group is treated as “outsiders,” designated by the pronoun “They.” In criminal groups, the feeling of “We” not only makes a person dependent on other members, but also gives a feeling of strength and support. As a rule, this feeling reduces the degree of criticality towards one’s actions and responsibility for their results.

Intergroup cooperation presupposes the absence of antagonistic oppositions between the concepts of “We” and “They”, mutual understanding, support and the desire for productive joint activities or constructive dialogue between members of various small groups and associations.