You will need

• Jeweler's loupe
• Hot water
• Electric lamp
• Magnet
• Rubber gloves, pipette, nitric acid

Instructions

First of all, you should pay attention to the product labeling. Modern factory products will definitely have a mark on them; designer silver jewelry must also be marked in the assay office, but not all artists follow these rules. On Russian-made products you can find the following hallmarks: 960,925,875,830,800. All of them indicate the percentage of silver in the alloy. Thus, a product marked 875 contains 87.5% silver. An alloy with 80% silver content is used mainly for cutlery. 925 silver is commonly called sterling silver throughout the world.

Other countries have different alloy standards, so products from abroad may have different numerical standards, in addition, some countries use markings such as STERLING, STER, S/S, SILVER. Don't forget about brands. Samples of hallmarks of famous masters and large companies are known to everyone who is interested in silver. On silver items produced in the Soviet Union, a five-pointed mark was used as a hallmark; antique silver may display a leopard with a raised paw. If you are buying an antique silver item secondhand, inquire about the hallmarks available and check them through specialized websites. Depending on the country, era, master, there are hundreds of hallmarks, hallmarks, brands and their combinations.

Pure, among metals, has the highest thermal conductivity coefficient. Therefore, the higher the sample, the purer it is, the faster the product heats up. You can drop in hot water two spoons - cupronickel silver and, presumably, silver, the second should heat up faster. A ring, earrings, chain, or bracelets made of jewelry or sterling silver become hot very quickly; it is even recommended to take them off before a bath or sauna to avoid getting burned.

Another property of silver is its highest light reflectivity. Place the silver item under bright light and see if it reflects it better than cupronickel or metal spoon or as well as other silver jewelry of the same standard. Do not forget to remove the patina from the control silver product, if this does not contradict the artistic decision, which will certainly dull the bright shine characteristic of silver.

The following test is very popular - if you rub a silver item with a clean, soft, light cloth, dark spots will remain on it. Its effectiveness is highly questionable for a number of reasons. Firstly, contrary to popular belief, silver is not oxidized by oxygen, but actively reacts with sulfur-containing compounds, which, in varying quantities, are present in environment and natural secretions of the human body. The amount of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur produced by the body is different for everyone, which is why there is a myth that silver “anticipates” the owner’s illness and darkens. Secondly, as a rule, silver alloys contain copper, but it just enters into an oxidation reaction with oxygen contained in the air. Accordingly, the purer the alloy, the less oxidation and, accordingly, the lower the effectiveness of the “tissue” test. And lastly, third. Manufacturers, well aware of the properties of silver and its alloys, protect products from oxidation in order to maintain their presentation by covering it with a thin layer of nickel, clear varnish, galvanic rhodium plating or a thick layer of special wax.

Another dubious test determines the authenticity of silver using a magnet. Yes, silver is diamagnetic, but copper, lead, and cadmium are also not attracted by a magnet, so the only thing that can be said based on the results of this test is whether the product contains a large admixture of iron or nickel.

One of the most accurate tests silver - nitric acid. Select an inconspicuous place on the product, scratch it slightly to remove any possible protective coating and drop a little nitric acid. Silver-plated brass, cupronickel, low-quality silver alloy will be painted in green color Due to the high copper content, sterling silver will turn creamy; almost pure silver will turn black.

Spoons- table setting items or kitchen utensils (depending on purpose). Based on the material, they are divided into metal, wood, plastic, glass, bone, and horn.

Spoons

Metal spoons Depending on the purpose and shape, they are produced in several types.

Table, dessert, tea, coffee spoons - with scoops, elongated, sometimes round in shape; all are all-metal, often stamped, sometimes cast.

The spoons differ from each other only in size. The thickness of the metal in the scoop evenly decreases from the base to the end; this not only improves the performance of the spoon, but also allows you to get a fairly massive and durable handle. This design is achieved by special rolling of the workpiece or by using a tape of the appropriate profile to stamp the spoons. When stamping spoons from sheet metal without rolling blanks, rolled stock of a smaller thickness is used; in this case, to ensure the necessary bending strength of the narrow neck of the handle, it is usually shaped by extruding a longitudinal stiffener rib, which somewhat worsens appearance spoons, and also makes them difficult to clean. Dessert spoons are used as tablespoons for children. For children, spoons are also available with a curved handle that allows the spoon to be used only with the right hand.

Pourers - table and kitchen, usually stamped with riveted, welded or soldered handles, less often all-metal cast. Depending on the purpose they differ: soup - with a hemispherical or round flat-bottomed scoop; sauce - with a sharply elongated drain on the side edge of the scoop or the same as table ones, but accordingly bigger size; for milk with a hemispherical scoop and a short outlet. Kitchen pouring spoons usually have hooks or holes at the ends of the handles for hanging them.

Tea spoons - with a double-leaf “apple” shape, shaped like a regular teaspoon, locked with a latch of different designs. The diameter of the holes on the doors is 0.7-1.0 mm.

Spoons for mustard, salt, etc. - different forms, with a flat or concave scoop.

Salad spoons - stamped all-metal or composite, with handles various styles and designs. They are produced complete with a special one for salad, with which they make up salad utensils. The main dimensions of metal spoons and the metals used for their manufacture are shown in the table below.

Assortment, materials used and main dimensions of metal spoons

Grades of metals used in the USSR since the fifties for the production of spoons: stainless steel - 1Х18Н9, 2Х18Н9, 1Х18Н9Т (GOST 5632-51); pickled steel (GOST 1368-47); cupronickel - MH19 (GOST 492-52); brass - L62, L68, L70; tompak - L90; L96 (GOST 1019-47); sheet aluminum - MM; secondary aluminum alloys ALZCH, ATsZCH and AL14CH, 875-grade silver.

Metal spoons used when setting the table vary depending on the design: smooth; with stamped edging; with stamped or engraved design. These spoons are not standardized in the shape of their handles; they are produced in large quantities options, including curly ones.

Aluminum spoons of all types, both stamped and cast, are produced light-galvanized or polished to mirror shine; The supply of matte aluminum (etched) spoons was allowed only with the consent of the customer. Aluminum spoons are also produced, finished with gold anodizing, etc. Spoons made of of stainless steel Available polished to a mirror finish, without coating. Cupronickel silver spoons are made silver-plated with a coating thickness of an average of 20 centners, but not less than 10 centners in some places; The silver-plated surface of these spoons can be oxidized with cleaning along the contour “to resemble old silver.” Silver spoons are mostly produced polished, less often with various types jewelry finishing, including with “niello” (see). Metal spoons included in various sets (both in cases and without them) are styled and finished in the same way as other items in the set, including those with plastic, wooden and other non-metallic handles or linings on the handles .

Wooden spoons are made in a handicraft way from hardwood (birch, aspen, linden and maple), monolithic (from one piece). The following parts are distinguished in wooden spoons: “blade” (“bucket”) - scoop; “bridge” (“galley”) - the transitional part from the scoop to the handle; “handle” is a handle and “forging” is a curly thickening at the end of the handle. Depending on the purpose and shape, wooden spoons differ: table spoons - with a round and deep blade; table thin - with a slightly narrowed and smaller blade and with a thin stalk; table semi-basque - with an oval small blade; dining rooms “bending” - the shape is close to metal with an oval scoop; kitchen “ladles” - with a round deep blade, often with a hook on the handle for hanging; kitchen wipes; mustard - with a concave or flat scoop. The range and main sizes of wooden spoons are shown in the table.

Assortment and main sizes of wooden spoons

Wooden tablespoons and ladles are made painted on a pre-sanded, primed and puttied surface and decorated: yellow, varnish, “berry-like”, “leaf-like”, “grass-like”, “Kudrina-like”, “background-like”, etc.

After applying the design, the spoons are coated several times with drying oil, after which they are calcined in an oven (“hardening”) until a dark golden background is obtained. This coloring is very durable, waterproof and heat resistant. Wooden rubbing and mustard spoons are produced well sanded, without painting.

Spoons

Plastic, glass, bone, and horn spoons, depending on their purpose, were made in the following types.

Ice cream spoons- plastic, pressed from aminoplasts of different colors, have the shape of a teaspoon, length 115-130 mm.

Salad spoons- complete with a salad fork, they were produced in plastic, made of organic glass (stamped), sometimes with a silver edging of jewelry, and pressed glass made of colorless or colored glass, the shape and dimensions are the same as the metal salad ones.

Mustard spoons- horn and bone, as well as pressed glass, with a round concave scoop or spatula, were produced only in sets of glass tabletop vessels.

Spoons for cupochon- glass (colorless or colored), produced only in a set of glass cutlery

Requirements for the quality of spoons.

For metal spoons(GOST 4893-49): the edges of the scoop (“apple”) are in the same plane; absence of burrs and sharp edges along the entire contour; bending strength of the neck (narrow part of the handle); symmetrical arrangement of the scoop, handle and stiffener on the neck of the handle and design relative to the longitudinal axis of the spoon; absence of shells, scratches, stains, waviness, caps, cracks and other defects that affect the strength or presentation of the products.

Metal spoons were produced in grades 1 and 2. The 2nd grade included products with minor deviations in terms of external finishing: insufficient clarity of the design, subtle risks, traces of sanding, etc. (within limits that do not affect the presentation of the products).

For wooden spoons(suppliers’ specifications): direction of wood fibers only along the length of the spoon; absence of wood defects - cross-layers, knots, rot, wormholes, cracks, etc.; absence of processing defects - chips, burrs, nicks, etc. correct symmetrical shape of products; coloring, harmless to health, durable, with a clear pattern, hardened to a dark golden color, with a bright shine of varnish over the entire surface; defects in painting - unpainted areas, bubbles, tackiness, dirt, erasures and mole rats - were not allowed.

Wooden spoons were produced in four grades: highest, 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades, which fully met the quality requirements and were classified as the highest grade. Products with minor defects in the form of slight symmetrical waviness of the blade, differently colored hardening, uneven pattern and single mole rats were classified as 1st grade; products with the same more pronounced defects, as well as with uneven priming, weakly expressed sagging and uneven coating thickness - classified as 2nd grade. Spoons that, in addition to the defects acceptable for the 2nd grade, also have deviations in shape, including slight curvature of the handle, are classified as 3rd grade. Minor chips in the edges and ends, but not affecting the suitability of the spoons for use, reduced the grade by one grade.

For bone and horn spoons- regular and symmetrical shape with a smooth, well-polished surface.

Quality checking.

For metal spoons- according to samples taken from a batch in the amount of 1%, but not less than 5 pieces: by appearance - with the naked eye; by size - with a universal measuring tool; for resistance to corrosion (stainless steel spoons only) - by immersing degreased and washed spoons in a 50% solution of acetic or citric acid at a temperature of 20° for 2 hours, after which no traces of corrosion should appear on the products; on the quality of silvering cupronickel spoons- by chemically removing silver.

For wooden spoons- based on samples taken in quantities of up to 20-30%; the check was carried out only by appearance with the naked eye; if more than 2-3% were rejected, the entire batch was returned to the supplier for re-sorting.

For bone and horn spoons- the same check as for wooden ones.

Marking.

Metal spoons were marked with a trademark or full production mark, a grade mark only for the 2nd grade, and a metal index (pressed or cast) on the back of the handle.

Metals were indexed using the following designations: stainless steel - “stainless steel”, cupronickel - “nickel silver”, aluminum alloy - ALS, silver - fineness in the corresponding numbers.

Wooden, bone and horn spoons were marked with labels inserted into the packaging containing the following data: name and address of the supplier, name of the spoons indicating the material (wood species for wooden spoons), type of finish, grade, quantity (in pieces), grader (name or number) and date of manufacture.

Package.

Metal spoons polished and silver plated were packaged in 10 pieces, interlaced with soft paper, in carton boxes or packs in paper wrapper; each box or bundle was tied with twine or covered with a paper parcel;

aluminum brushed spoons— in packs of 25 pieces in a paper wrapper, tied with twine; Each box or pack was affixed with a company label indicating the department, manufacturer, product name, material name, grade, quantity (in pieces) and standard.

For transportation, boxes and packs were packed in wooden boxes with a gross weight of up to 30 kg with an insert of packaging labels with the same data as on the labels; packaging of spoons included in various sets - according to the suppliers' specifications.

Wooden spoons packaged in wooden boxes or shingle boxes with a lid woven from shingles (the lids were sometimes replaced by covering the top of the box with matting); 100-500 spoons or 100-200 ladles were packed into each box or box; the top row was compacted with a layer of hay or straw. A packaging label with the above information was included in each location; in addition, the same data was indicated on a tag attached to the package or directly on the container.

Bone and horn spoons packaged by agreement of the parties.

Storage and transportation of spoons of all types was carried out only in packaged form, in closed rooms. Boxes of wooden spoons were to be stored and transported only closed or padded, with spacers between the rows.

Requirements for quality, grading, quality control, marking and packaging of pouring spoons - aluminum, enameled steel, cupronickel and silver, as well as plastic and glass - are the same as for utensils made from the corresponding materials.

Care and rational use of spoons. Do not clean spoons with sand or other scratching materials; You should not use alkalis and acids to clean aluminum spoons, which have a destructive effect on this metal; it is not recommended to use ammonia and hyposulfite solution to clean silver spoons with “niello”, which is destroyed in the process.

Recommended methods for cleaning spoons: aluminum - with a rag moistened with a hot solution of borax (30 g per 1 l) with the addition of ammonia (10 g), followed by rinsing with clean hot water; enameled steel and stainless steel - in a hot soda solution (25 g per 1 l) with rinsing with clean hot water; once a week these spoons should be washed in warm water with the addition of 10% ammonia (a teaspoon per 1 liter); It is recommended to clean silver ones with a creamy mixture of tooth powder and ammonia. Damp stains on silver are removed with warm vinegar, followed by rinsing with warm water; The tarnished surfaces of silver and silver-plated spoons are washed with a hot 1% soap solution, then, without allowing them to cool, they are moistened with a hyposulfite solution (100 g per 0.5 l) and wiped with a soft cloth.

A mark may consist of many different parts, indicating a variety of procedures and movements to which the item has been subjected. But it will definitely tell us about the country, period and quality of the metal.

Using the example of the stamps of some countries, we will see how a lot of information can be conveyed with the help of inconspicuous details.

To begin, let’s divide the mark into several components:

• Sample (indicates material)
• Name plate (indicates the master, sometimes the date)
• Brand of the country
• Assay office hallmark

This division is quite arbitrary. As you will see further, each country has its own differences.

What is a sample and why is it needed?

One thing is invariable on all products - sample. The hallmark tells how much gold or silver is contained in a certain amount of metal. It is important to know how many noble metal We are talking about what mass.

We will look at the metric, carat, spool and lot systems. The first two are the most common in the world, the latter have historical value for us, and I will also return to them as the story progresses.

Metric– is the most known and familiar to us. It shows how many particles of silver or gold there are per 1000 particles of metal. 925, 875, 575, 333 samples - they all belong to the metric system. The higher the value, the more noble metal there is in the product. Often, the values ​​of metric samples were obtained as a result of recalculation of the carat sample, because it is older.

Carat The sample is based on a unit of mass measurement - carats. One carat is equal to 0.2 grams. The word carato translated from Italian means “carob seed.” These grains have long been used to indicate mass, as they are stable in weight. Carats are designated as follows: K, kt, C, ct. This hallmark system only applies to gold. It shows how many carats of gold are in 24 carats of total weight (per 4.8 grams). There are the following samples and they correspond to the samples of the metric system: 9 k - 375, 12 k - 500, 14 - 585, 18 k - 750, 21 k - 875, 22 k - 916, 23 k - 958, 24 k - 999.

Zolotnikovaya the sample is tied to the Russian pound, which was equal to 96 spools. One spool is equal to 4.266 g. Shows how much precious metal is contained in one pound. Spool test and its correspondences in the metric system: 3 6 z - 375, 48 z - 500, 56 z - 583, 72 z - 750, 84 z - 875, 88 z - 916, 91 z - 947, 92 z - 958, 96 z - 999.

Lotovaya the sample operated in Germany in the Middle Ages until 1888. The basis of this system is one mark, which equals 16 lots. The hallmark itself shows how many lots of gold or silver are in one mark. One lot, in turn, contains 12.797 g. The following samples exist: 6, 8, 12, 14, 16 .

The samples are generally quite uniform. Knowing the main trial systems, you can already say something about the product. The remaining components of the mark differ in different countries. We will analyze the marks in Germany, France, England, Ukraine and the USSR.

We tried to summarize all the general information about stamps in this video:

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Stamps in Germany

It all started back in the Middle Ages, when a guild organization of handicrafts developed in Germany. Master jewelers united in workshops, and this organization helped them solve various difficulties and conduct their production affairs. They established a hierarchy of three levels: master, journeyman, student. The oldest mention of a mark in Germany dates back to 1289. From this moment, the development of a system of marks began. The system is not only the designation on the product, but also tax laws, guilds, and assay fees. European countries followed the path of creating a system synchronously; there were no ready-made role models, so the process was delayed.

Only in 1548 was it officially established in Germany to brand all objects made of precious metals weighing more than 4 lots (51 grams). It consisted of a lot sample, a master's mark and a stamp-certificate of the elector. Also, the designation of the city and year was added. The Elector's mark was confirmation that the item was indeed verified and had the exact quantity precious metal, which is stated in the sample. By 1667, the “Cologne mark” was finally established; it was equal to approximately 800 silver. In 1888, the lot system was replaced by the metric system. The state branding standard became the following: the mark of a master or a company, and also a sample and state confirmation of the authenticity of the sample - a month with a crown.

To this day, if you see a product with 800 fineness silver, it is most likely from Germany.

Hallmarks in France

The first mention of marks on precious metals in France dates back to 1272. It was about the mark of the city and the master, which used to look like a pictogram: a cross, a flower, a heart. Already in 1378, the state silver standard was officially approved (gold was inaccessible to the general public, only to the church and the nobility). But the craftsmen did not want to brand the products; in the provinces it was impossible to control them. The procedure was not yet ready for use and faded away.

But the desire of the state apparatus to control the movement and use of precious metals has very serious reasons. War booty circulated freely and the amount of metal imported was unknown. Control and accounting of precious metals, from which taxes could be withdrawn and the treasury could be replenished, became increasingly important. And with the development of the royal court, the need for money increased. The introduction of taxes on jewelry craftsmen was a partial solution to the problem.

In 1672, a stamp was introduced for the tax payment certificate, which was affixed by a special person - the tax farmer. There was also an inventory mark that was placed if the tax farmer left his post early. Mandatory were the mark of the master, the state mark, or the city mark, the mark of tax payment and tax exemption. In Paris, an annual stamp-letter was added to this set, as well as a special procedure for controlling large items. The process consisted in the fact that the master put a name on all fragments of the product, tested them in the Guild, paid all taxes (at each stage a mark was placed), and after assembly he again paid taxes, which certified the corresponding mark. And only then could the master sell the product. This incredible procedure significantly increased the cost and slowed down production as a whole.

After the French Revolution, the grip of taxes and assay control weakened, but soon all guarantee and tax stamps returned. Since the beginning of the 19th century, marks have become more unified. The head of Hermes certified state control, a letter indicated the date and a sample was given. There were no longer any significant complications in branding and testing.

However, in general, all these bureaucratic complications apparently partly led to the fact that today, with age, French products are not found as often as English or German ones.

Hallmarks in England

At the same time as in France and Germany, the problem of quality control of metals was brewing in England. At the beginning of the 13th century, a guild of goldsmiths was created in London. The most authoritative craftsmen walked around the shops and checked samples on the products of their colleagues. Later, the need arose for a separate building, which was allocated to them by the city. Therefore, in England there is a word - “hallmark” (hall in translation - hall, mark in translation - brand), which is associated with this building, where the products were checked. In 1363, it was decided that each master must have his own name and put it only after checking by the guild and having the appropriate mark.

By the middle of the 15th century, the following problem arose: there was a lot of low-quality silver in the country, and high-quality metal tested by the state was exported. Therefore, in 1477 it was decided that all items produced in the province should be brought and tested in London. And put the date - a letter in the cartouche that indicated the year. Since 1701, assay offices began to open throughout the country, which simplified the task of control and accounting. In the 19th century, there were five marks on products: a state mark, which certified the sample, an annual mark, a mark of the city, a master, and the payment of taxes. A separate mark was placed on imported products.

Before today out of five stamps, 4 remained (all were preserved except the tax stamp). Each city has its own designation - a pictogram, each year has its own letter with a certain font. Overall, this is a very clear and informative product marking scheme.

Thus, we see that the marks on products tell us, first of all, about the relationship between jewelers and the state, officials and taxes. This is a whole story told using metonymy - in a small mark we see big events, wars, triumphs, revolutions.

Stamps in Ukraine

As in Europe, in Ukraine the main form of organization of artisans was the guild. A document has been preserved according to which we know that in 1518 there was a workshop of goldsmiths in Kyiv. Goldsmiths were called both craftsmen who worked with silver and gold. Also, workshops existed in Priluki, Chernigov, Ostrog, Nizhyn, etc. Some seals of jewelers, their banners and charters have reached us. The guild hierarchy provided for the mandatory presence of a statute, which prescribed under what conditions a student could become an apprentice, and an apprentice a master. The master himself put a mark on both his products and the products of his apprentices. In some cases, the mark could belong to the donor-customer. These circumstances significantly complicate the attribution of products.

The earliest stamps on the territory of Ukraine known to us date back to the 16th century. It is known for sure that in 1599 all jewelers in the city of Lvov were required to brand their products so that they would not fall into the hands of buyers. The mark of 1547 is known on a silver cross, which is located in the Kiev Historical Museum. Since the 16th-17th centuries, products from other parts of Ukraine have been known, on which they put their name, nickname, or initials.

In the 17th century, Kyiv craftsmen began to put Kiov on their products. Later, all cities had assay offices and put their own stamps, which were tied to the city's coat of arms. Interestingly, the testing system was originally carat, but since the 19th century, a spool system was adopted. At the same time, the branding standard was as follows: a spool sample of the product, a city mark and a master’s mark. The shape of the mark changed, which helps us determine the age of the product. And since 1908, a national identification mark was added to the hallmark - a female head in a kokoshnik.

All this tells us about a rather chaotic situation. It was significantly influenced by the lack of a unified state apparatus for a long time. This freed craftsmen from having to test their products and pay taxes. Of course, this also gives us less information about a specific product, about the intensity of exchange and trade in these products, and complicates dating.

After 1991, the trident became the state mark of Ukraine. Today there are 13 state assay chambers (they affix the trident) and 4 private factories. These are Vinnitsa, Kharkov, Lviv and Kyiv jewelry factories. They can carry out the assay themselves and put not a trident, but a chestnut leaf.

Stamps in the USSR

From 1917 to 1927, there was no stamp standard on the territory of Soviet power. Only 10 years after the revolution in the USSR, the state brand was adopted - worker's head. There was also a transition from the spool testing system to the metric one, which was used in Europe at that time. The hallmark of the Assay Office was a head with a hammer at the ready + the letter code of the Assay Office (at first it was a letter of the Greek alphabet). The mark was either in the shape of a spatula or in the shape of a quadrangle with convex opposite sides (since 1956). For silver – 875, for gold 583.

On May 8, 1958, the worker's head was replaced by a five-pointed star with a hammer and sickle inside. At the same time, assay inspections began to be designated by letters of the Cyrillic alphabet.

Nameplates at factories appeared in 1936, often these were abbreviations of names. And since 1953, a number was added to the name at the end, which indicated the year. Thus, if the stamp is with the head of a worker, and the nameplate looks like this: “СУ6”, this means that the product was manufactured in 1956. But if there is a star on the hallmark, then the same name will indicate 1966. From 1969 to 1978, the exact date of production was indicated by adding the last digit of the year to the beginning of the name. For example, the name “0ХУ” tells us about 1970.

A spoon allegedly used by a German soldier in 1941-1945. Found it in an abandoned house. On back side handles inscription: "PLEWKIEWICZ GALW", according to information from the Internet, I found out the following: " ". Next, the number “6” is stamped, apparently it indicates the number of the item in the table set. because it turns out that there are similar spoons and forks. And at the end of the handle the letters “BM” are stamped. At first I thought it was the owner's initials, but it turned out to be simpler. "VM" denotes the metal from which the object is made, in in this case"VM" - white metal (nickel silver). There are cutlery with another brand "Rostfreier Stahl" (stainless steel).

It is possible that such spoons were used everywhere. In our area there were many Romanian soldiers fighting for Nazi Germany. Everyone knows that some Polish citizens were in the ranks of the Reich. It is possible that such sets were purchased by civilians in the pre- and post-war times.

I had another spoon lying around for a long time, as it turned out to be with the letters “VM”, I found it in my youth on the ruins of an abandoned farm. She is clearly of civilian origin. On spoons produced by Germany specifically for the army, officers There is a mark of an eagle with a swastika.

Fraget company.

For interested visitors, we are adding another copy of the ancient cutlery. In the photo below, we see an item with the inscription "Fraget (Fraget)". This means that the item is made of copper or a copper alloy, electroplated with silver on top. The founder of a factory in Poland that produced devices using this technology was Joseph Fraget (1797-1867). Items made from Polish silver were very popular; they were also supplied to royalty (Serbia, Romania, Afghanistan). In the collections of famous museums there are objects with the "Fraget" brand.

Interesting site materials

From this article you can learn about all existing samples of this metal, its properties and cost. The sample of any precious metal indicates its percentage content in 1000 grams of the alloy. Natural silver is characterized by high softness and therefore impurities are added to the material from which various types of products are made.

Such metals can be:

• platinum;
• germanium;
• zinc;
• silicon.

Marking

Silver is presented in the following samples:

• 999 – pure metal;
• 960 – the highest marking;
• 925 - the most common, jewelry is made from it;
• 875 – standard of household silver;
• 830 – used for making tableware;
• 800 – used for cutlery.

Silver below the 800 grade is not graded and is considered base metal.

800 sample

Compound:

• 80% precious metal;
• 20% ligature.

Positive traits:

• high strength;
• excellent casting qualities.

Negative qualities:

• rapid oxidation;
• yellowish tint.

830 marking

Almost similar to 800, but contains a little more noble metal.

These markings are not used in jewelry, but are mostly used in the manufacture of dishes and cutlery.

875 marking

Has the following composition:

• 87.5% noble metal;
• 12.5% ​​other metals.

Advantages:

• relatively high content of noble metal;
• low cost of jewelry;
• high strength.

Flaws: impossibility of performing fine jewelry work (due to increased strength).

Sample 925

The most popular in jewelry.

Advantages:

• pure shine characteristic of silver;
• wide artistic choice;
• retains its shape well.

Flaws: softness.

Marking 960

It has very similar characteristics to 925 standard, but practically does not oxidize and does not turn black.

Types of silver

Currently, the most popular types of this noble metal are:

• sterling;
• leaf;
• filigree;
• matte;
• blackened;
• coin

Sterling silver- Pounds sterling were minted from it in Great Britain until the advent of the euro. Marked 925.

Leaf– a very thin sheet of silver that is usually of the highest purity and can be easily alloyed with a variety of materials.

Performs the following functions:

• protective;
• anti-corrosion;
• aesthetic.

Therefore, this type of precious material is used to decorate church interiors, cover furniture and stucco moldings.

Filigree– is held in high esteem by jewelers, who make real masterpieces from it, sometimes thinner than a human hair. The alloy of such silver has high strength.

Blackened- was once considered a talisman, to which many magical characteristics were attributed. This type of metal is produced using niello, which contains lead and copper. They heat up on the surface of the silver and give the product a black tint.

Oxidized– covered with a thin oxide layer, sometimes an oxide film. These coatings protect the metal from further oxidation.

Matte– covered with a layer of enamel, which gives it a very beautiful view product. Famous for its durability.
Coin- an alloy used for minting coins.

Prices

To calculate the cost of silver, depending on the sample, you need to know the price per gram of this precious metal in its pure form. Central Bank rate Russian Federation

for silver is 30.95 rubles per gram.

• From this it turns out that the price per gram is:
• 960 samples – 30.95 x 0.960 = 29.712 rubles;
• 925 markings – 28.63 rubles;
• 875 – is 27.08 rubles;
• 830 – 25.69 rubles;

800 – 24.74 rubles.

Brand

• Each product made of precious metal is marked, which consists of:
• state hallmark;
• manufacturer's mark;

label.

State stamp

• The state stamp is a sample that is set by the state assay inspection inspection and can be applied to the product in the following ways:
• mechanical (impression);

modern (laser or electric spark method).

• The brand changed its appearance:
• in 1958 they began to depict the hammer and sickle against the background of a star; since 1994 – in profile form female head

in a kokoshnik.

The shape remained the same - a circle and an oblong barrel.

Manufacturer's mark The manufacturer's mark - the name plate - is placed on all precious items and must be enclosed in a single outline. Has four capital letters

• , which represent three characters, namely:
• year code (A-2001; B-2002 and so on);
• code of the territorial location of the Assay Supervision Inspection Department (for example, L-St. Petersburg, North-Western Inspectorate);

department code.

Label A label is an official document that has the following dimensions:

25 x 35 and 25 x 50 mm, and information on both sides. Attached to the product using a seal and thread. According to the law, the manufacturer is responsible for all information presented on the label.

Choosing the right silver

• When buying a precious metal, first of all you need to decide for what purpose this action is being performed, and only then you should follow several rules that will help you make the right choice:
• check, without leaving the store, the presence of a sample, an assay mark;
• it is better to choose models with the designation “Zinc free” (without zinc), the harmful effects of which have been proven;
• the most optimal sample of the product is 925;
• be sure to ask for a receipt.

Imitation silver

Counterfeits of this type of precious metal are not as common as gold, but there is still a risk of purchasing a counterfeit. The following products are offered under the guise of silver:

• with a very low content of this material;
• decorations are covered with the thinnest layer of silver.

If you have doubts about the authenticity of your purchase, you can check whether the silver is real at home:

• by exposure to heat (silver conducts heat remarkably well and heats up instantly);
• needle test - run a needle over the product (if authentic, there will be no mark left on the product);
• iodine test - if it gets on a silver surface, it should not change its color;
• effect on chalk - only silver leaves traces on it.

Silver care

Sometimes products made from this noble material change their appearance, this is due to:

• improper use of jewelry;
• untimely cleaning;

Rules for wearing silver jewelry:

• remove products when engaging in physical activity and during physiotherapeutic and cosmetic procedures;
• periodic cleaning of jewelry (on average once a month).